A multidimensional analysis of children’s connection with nature: Associations with age, gender, and frequency of nature contact

Connection with nature (CN) is increasingly recognised as a key construct in environmental education and a predictor of pro-environmental behaviour. However, empirical evidence on age-related patterns in CN during childhood and its associations with sociodemographic and contextual factors remains inconsistent. This study examines the affective, behavioural, and cognitive dimensions of CN in a sample of 1375 children aged 6–11 years from Córdoba, Spain. A validated multidimensional instrument was administered, and data were analysed using beta-binomial Generalised Linear Mixed Models, with school-level random intercepts to account for the clustering of pupils within schools. Age-related patterns were examined using spline-based modelling to capture potential non-linear associations. Findings revealed dimension-specific patterns. Affective CN was lower among older children, whereas behavioural CN was higher in early and middle childhood, showing only a slight attenuation at the oldest ages in spline-based estimates. Cognitive CN showed a positive overall age-related association, particularly among boys in the oldest age group. Because the design was cross-sectional, these findings describe age-related differences within the sample rather than intra-individual change over time. Gender differences were slight in the affective and behavioural components. Frequent contact with nature was strongly and consistently associated with overall, affective and behavioural CN, with a weaker association for the cognitive dimension. No robust differences were found between urban–rural places of residence. These results support a multidimensional understanding of CN. The findings have implications for environmental education policy and practice, suggesting the need for sustained and structured nature-based learning opportunities during middle childhood.