Urinary biomarkers in cancer detection: explorations, advancements, challenges, and future directions

Urine, a rich biological resource containing diverse metabolites, proteins, exfoliated cells, and cell-free DNA, provides valuable insights into physiological and pathological states. Its non-invasive nature and ease of collection have established urinary biomarkers as promising tools for detecting urological cancers, particularly bladder, prostate, and cervical malignancies. Advances in multi-omics technologies, including genomics, proteomics, and metabolomics, have significantly enhanced analytical sensitivity and specificity, improving diagnostic accuracy and disease monitoring. This comprehensive review systematically examines recent progress in biomarker discovery and clinical applications across various cancers, critically evaluating their diagnostic potential while addressing current limitations and challenges. The insights provided herein aim to facilitate the optimization of urinary biomarker-based strategies and promote their broader integration into clinical practice for improved cancer detection and management.