Urinary Biomarkers in Cancer: A Scoping Review

Cancer remains a major global health challenge and a leading cause of mortality worldwide. As incidence continues to rise, early detection remains one of the most effective strategies for improving survival and reducing disease burden. Urine is an attractive source of biomarkers due to its non-invasive collection, ease of repeated sampling, and rich molecular composition. This scoping review evaluates the current landscape of urinary biomarkers for the early detection of cancer and their potential for clinical translation. A detailed literature search was conducted using PubMed, Embase, and Web of Science to identify studies investigating urinary biomarkers for cancer detection. Biomarkers were categorised by analyte class, and diagnostic performance, validation status, and clinical applicability were assessed. Urinary biomarkers demonstrated diagnostic potential across multiple malignancies, including lung, breast, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, colorectal, renal and ovarian cancers, while several urinary assays are already clinically available for bladder and prostate cancers. Promising diagnostic accuracy was reported for multiple biomarker classes, particularly multimarker panels integrating metabolites, proteins, nucleic acids, and epigenetic signatures. However, most studies were exploratory, involving small cohorts, methodological heterogeneity, and limited independent validation. Urinary biomarkers represent a promising and rapidly evolving approach to non-invasive cancer detection. Despite encouraging diagnostic performance, few candidates have progressed to clinical implementation. Large prospective multicentre studies, rigorous validation, and assay standardisation are essential to establish urinary biomarkers as reliable tools for cancer screening, early diagnosis, and risk stratification.