Probabilistic human health risk assessment of toxic elements in rice grains from industrially and non-industrially impacted areas of Bangladesh

The concentration of toxic elements (As, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb, Zn) in rice grains varies across industrially and non-industrially impacted agricultural areas. This contamination is particularly critical for countries like Bangladesh, where rice is the staple food. This study assessed the potential health risks and nutritional quality of rice grown in the battery recycling area (BRA), industrial area (IA) and non-industrial area (NIA). Among the toxic elements (TEs) analyzed, As and Pb exceeded the maximum permissible limits (0.20 mg/kg). Pb concentrations were significantly higher in BRA and IA (both 0.32 mg/kg, p < 0.0001) compared to NIA, while As concentration was highest (0.23 mg/kg) in the NIA. The result showed that NIA exhibited a higher non-carcinogenic risk to the exposed population. Conversely, the industrial areas posed comparatively higher carcinogenic risks. The Monte Carlo simulation exhibited the order of total carcinogenic risk (TCR) followed the sequence BRA > IA > NIA. Among the TEs, Ni contributed the most to overall TCR, whereas As posed the highest carcinogenic threat specifically in NIA. Despite contamination concerns, rice grains provided adequate Cu and Fe for dietary intake; however, elevated As and Pb, alongside long-term Ni and Cr risks, require urgent attention.