Seroepidemiology and serotype diversity of foot-and-mouth disease virus in cattle and other domestic ungulates across Nigeria

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a highly contagious viral infection of cloven-hoofed animals that causes substantial economic losses and severe disruptions to agricultural systems globally. It affects animal health and productivity in Nigeria but there is paucity of data across regions and among various animal species. This study determined the seroepidemiology and serotype diversity of the FMD virus (FMDV) among domestic ungulates including cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs, across all geopolitical zones in Nigeria. 1002 sera were collected aseptically from domestic ungulate animals (cattle n = 511, sheep n = 182, goat n = 218 and pigs n = 91) and were analysed using commercial ELISA kits (ID Vet®, France and IZLER®, Italy) to antibody and serotype-specific antibodies to FMD. Metadata on individual species were collected through questionnaire uploaded on Kobocollect containing sociodemographic data, and distribution of FMD in Nigeria. The study revealed an overall FMD seroprevalence of 45.7% for all the various species and regions in Nigeria with specific host prevalence of 69.7% for cattle, 26.9% for sheep, 20.6% for goats, and 8.8% for pigs. Among the 458 FMD-seropositive samples, serotype O was the most predominant (74.9%), followed by A (56.3%), SAT 2 (35.8%), Asia 1 (22.9%) and SAT 1 (16.8%). Kaduna had the highest seroprevalence (88.9%), while Cross River had the lowest (9.1%). Multi-serotype infections were most common in cattle (32%). Health status and body condition were major determinants of susceptibility, with unhealthy animals being five times more likely to test positive for FMD (OR = 5.479, p < 0.001). While cattle constituted the majority of samples analysed, the inclusion of sheep, goats, and pigs provided comparative insights into interspecies variation in exposure and serotype occurrence. We have systematically determined FMDV seroprevalence and serotype distribution in various domestic ungulate species across all the geopolitical zones in Nigeria. Our findings reveal that serotype O and A remain dominant across Nigeria, while the unexpected detection of serotype Asia 1 indicates possible viral evolution or introduction from new sources. Furthermore, border proximity was not a significant predictor of infection, suggesting localized transmission dynamics. These insights underscore the need for improved surveillance, context-specific multivalent vaccination strategies, and further molecular investigation of emerging serotypes in Nigeria.