Purpose This article argues that policy implementation should be understood not as simple execution of policy intent, but as a fundamentally operational process. It seeks to frame implementation as the central arena of policy action and to identify the core operational forces that determine whether policies move from adoption to sustained delivery. Design/methodology/approach The article develops a conceptual framework grounded in field-based experience and informed by the concept of development readiness. It identifies four interdependent operational dimensions of implementation – activation cost, optionality, kinetics and negotiation – and applies this framework through comparative analysis of two cases: the successful institutional scaling of the UN World Food Programme’s (WFP) Cash and Voucher Policy adopted in 2008, and a counterfactual case of major implementation gaps in Kenya’s fertilizer subsidy program. Findings The analysis shows that successful implementation depends on deliberate investment in operational systems, including delivery infrastructure, organizational capability, coordination mechanisms and adaptive capacity. The WFP case illustrates how early activation investments, preserved optionality across delivery modalities, gradual kinetic scaling and continuous negotiation enabled a policy decision to evolve into a durable, systemwide operational capability. In contrast, Kenya’s fertilizer subsidy program demonstrates how high activation costs, weak kinetics, limited negotiation with key private-sector actors and low optionality can stall implementation despite strong political support and clear policy intent. Research limitations/implications Policy success is determined not at the moment of adoption, but at the point of operational readiness. Viewing implementation through an operational lens helps explain both success and failure and highlights why many well-designed and politically supported policies falter in practice. Practical implications The article concludes that to close the gap between policy on paper and policy in action, implementation itself must be treated as the core frontier of policy action, requiring sustained investment, learning, negotiation and time. Originality/value Its originality lies in offering a new four-dimensional operational framework and shifting the analytical focus from policy intent to the systems, capabilities and negotiations required to translate policy into sustained, systemwide action.
Steven Were Omamo (Tue,) studied this question.