The rapid expansion of digital technologies has made digital competence a fundamental requirement for adults’ participation in modern society. However, disparities in access, skills, and socio-economic conditions continue to limit digital inclusion. This article provides a structured literature review of digital skills and competence development among adults, with particular attention to the role of socio-economic factors and educational strategies. The analysis highlights that digital competence extends beyond basic technical skills to include cognitive, social, and critical dimensions necessary for effective participation in digital environments. The findings indicate that socio-economic status significantly influences access to digital resources and learning opportunities, reinforcing existing inequalities. Furthermore, the literature emphasizes the importance of lifelong learning, flexible educational models, and community-based approaches in supporting adult digital skill development. The study contributes to the field by synthesizing current research and identifying key gaps, particularly the need for more integrated and inclusive approaches to digital competence development. The results have implications for policymakers and educators seeking to design effective strategies to reduce the digital divide and promote equitable participation in the digital society.
Spulber et al. (Wed,) studied this question.