What question did this study set out to answer?

To investigate long-term immune responses after COVID-19 infection, vaccination, or both, focusing on antibody and cellular immunity.

April 19, 2026BiomedicinesOpen Access

The Effects of Past COVID-19 and Vaccination on Antibody Levels, Cellular Immunity, and Cytokine Production by Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells

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Cross-sectional investigation shows lasting immune responses in those exposed to COVID-19 and vaccinated, suggesting effective long-term immunity.

To investigate long-term immune responses after COVID-19 infection, vaccination, or both, focusing on antibody and cellular immunity.
Analyzed serum antibody levels up to 4.5 years post-infection or vaccination.
Assessed cellular immunity via T-helper memory and cytotoxic T cells in peripheral blood mononuclear cells.
Used multiplex cytokine assays to evaluate immune response to recombinant SARS-CoV-2 proteins.
Virus-specific IgG antibodies remained detectable for years, correlating with neutralizing activity.
Vaccinated individuals showed higher IgA levels; N-protein antibodies linked to prior infections.
Memory T cell frequencies were higher in individuals with both infection and vaccination; cytokine production was elevated upon S-protein stimulation.

Desheva et al. (2026) studied this question.

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Cross-sectional investigation shows lasting immune responses in those exposed to COVID-19 and vaccinated, suggesting effective long-term immunity.