Purpose This article addresses the theoretical fragmentation in understanding the complex co-evolution of humans, society and digital technologies. Existing frameworks often isolate these entities or reduce their interactions to instrumental determinism. The purpose of this study is to introduce the concept of “opticons” – defined as historically evolving observational infrastructures – to explain the mechanisms of this co-evolution. Design/methodology/approach Drawing on Niklas Luhmann’s social systems theory, specifically the concepts of operational closure, structural coupling and second-order observation, the authors develop an original typology of “opticons.” These are defined as technologically conditioned observational infrastructures that mediate the relationship between psychic systems (humans) and social systems. Findings The article introduces a developmental trajectory of observation: from the disciplinary Panopticon and the mass-media Synopticon to the peer-to-peer Homoopticon and the emerging, AI-driven Opticon Caecum. The analysis demonstrates that the shift toward the Opticon Caecum fundamentally alters social dynamics by decoupling human “meaning” from algorithmic “patterns.” This creates a new form of structural coupling where AI acts as a depersonalized semi-observer, affecting temporal perception and individual agency. Practical implications The proposed theory provides a strategic framework for policymakers and IT designers to navigate the specific challenges of algorithmic governance. By identifying the mechanisms of the Opticon Caecum, the study highlights the operational risks of systems that decouple decision-making patterns from human meaning. The taxonomy of opticons offers organizations a diagnostic tool to assess the deeper social impact of their surveillance technologies, encouraging a shift from mere privacy compliance to a broader consideration of user autonomy and identity formation in digital ecosystems. Originality/value The contribution extends systems theory to the digital age by treating observational infrastructures not merely as tools, but as constitutive elements of social reality. Furthermore, the proposed HST model offers a robust heuristic tool for IS researchers to analyze the “black box” of algorithmic governance and the blurring boundaries between analog and digital layers of existence.
Kaczmarczyk et al. (Wed,) studied this question.