Digital Shi’ism and ethical dilemmas in the study of religious minorities on Instagram: Methodological reflections from the field

This paper explores the complex ethical landscape of researching digital religious minorities, focusing on Instagram content related to Shiʿi Islam. Drawing from original case studies, it critically engages with the methodological and ethical dilemmas encountered in digital fieldwork. Core tensions examined include the questions of visibility and vulnerability, the boundaries between public and private content, and the balance between academic integrity and participant protection. The study interrogates assumptions about consent, copyright, and authorship in the context of high-follower Instagram accounts that function more like media platforms than personal profiles. Through a detailed review of internet research ethics literature, legal frameworks, and reflexive practice, the paper advocates for a flexible, context-sensitive approach that recognizes both the risks and responsibilities of working with online religious content. It argues that while public-facing social media posts may not legally require informed consent or IRB oversight, ethical obligations persist, especially when the content is politically sensitive or involves marginalized groups. Rather than applying rigid rules, researchers are encouraged to make informed, transparent decisions based on user intent, platform affordances, and the potential for harm. Ultimately, the paper proposes a “middle path” in digital ethics—one that resists both the erasure of marginalized voices and the overexposure of vulnerable actors. By openly documenting its decision-making process, this research contributes to ongoing discussions about ethical digital scholarship, emphasizing care, accountability, and methodological transparency.