A cross-cultural comparative study of language learning applications for self-regulated language learning: Insights from mainland China, the UK, and the US

This study comprises a cross-cultural comparative study of the ways in which foreign-language learners regard and use language learning applications (LLAs) as part of their strategy of language acquisition. Through providing questionnaires and undertaking interviews with language learners at universities across mainland China, the United Kingdom and United States of America, the study seeks to understand how factors such as motivations behind learning languages, attitudes towards language learning applications, and confidence in self-regulated learning skills can impact outcomes such as application choice and time spent using language learning applications. On the basis of survey responses from 1298 students and interviews with some 30 of this number, the study notes a number of conclusions pertinent to its aims. It highlights important differences in how students from China, the UK and USA use LLAs for self-regulated language learning, particularly between the Chinese context and Anglophonic contexts. Chinese students favour applications that facilitate the structured delivery of content reflecting predetermined goals, whereas English and American students favour applications that offer more flexibility and personalised feedback. Motivations also vary, with Chinese students prioritising professional development and certification, whilst British and American students value personal growth and cultural appreciation. Identified challenges also differ, with Chinese users struggling to comprehend written content – prioritising written comprehension over other competencies – and confidence in SRL, whilst British and American users are often frustrated with repetitive content, a lack of sufficient personalisation, and insufficient opportunities for practising speaking and listening. • Chinese learners prefer structured apps; UK/US learners prefer flexible, personalized tools. • Chinese learners seek certification; UK/US learners value growth, culture, and communication. • Chinese learners face SRLL comprehension issues; UK/US learners face repetition and limited practice. • Designers should consider cultural and contextual differences when creating or recommending LLAs. • Policies should promote culturally adaptive LLAs with structure, flexibility, and real‑world use.