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A striking feature of modern medical education is the absence of instruction in the design and evaluation of clinical research. During pre‐clinical courses in microbiology, biochemistry, or physiology, a medical student may be exposed to the principles of laboratory experiments with animals, microbial organisms, or inanimate substances; but the student is seldom taught how to appraise investigations in which the data come from intact human beings.
Alvan R. Feinstein (Sat,) studied this question.