Extrarenal effects of aldosterone

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: The renal distal tubule has been considered for a long time as the main cellular target of aldosterone, where the hormone enhances sodium reabsorption and potassium secretion. However, other cell types in nonepithelial tissues, such as the heart, the vessels, adipose tissue, and macrophages, are now also recognized as targets for aldosterone. The functions that aldosterone exerts in these nonclassical target tissues are still a matter of debate. This review will highlight the recent findings on the extrarenal effects of aldosterone. RECENT FINDINGS: Numerous studies showed that aldosterone exerts profibrotic and proinflammatory effects, but one or more cofactors such as salt, angiotensin II, and oxidative stress are required. Moreover, inflammation and macrophage infiltration are a prerequisite to aldosterone-induced cardiac fibrosis. This underlines a key role for aldosterone and the mineralocorticoid receptor in macrophages. Inflammatory effects of aldosterone in vascular smooth muscle cells involve trafficking to lipid rafts/caveolae through receptor tyrosine kinases. Finally, a growing body of evidence indicates a prominent role of aldosterone/mineralocorticoid receptor in the metabolic syndrome, in insulin resistance, and in adipocyte biology. SUMMARY: The idiom from Socrates, 'the more we learn, the less we know', can be applied to aldosterone with its different facets and its pleiotropic effects. There is clear evidence for rapid nongenomic effects of aldosterone, mineralocorticoid receptor-dependent and mineralocorticoid receptor-independent signaling, in the heart, the vessels, and other nonepithelial tissues, leading to inflammation, fibrosis, and progression of cardiovascular diseases including hypertension and metabolic syndrome.