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This article explores the assumptions which underpin research studies of the effects of pupil, school and Local Education Authority (LEA) characteristics on pupil achievement. While not intended as a critique of particular studies, it will have something to say about a number. Its aim is to clarify the necessary limitations on knowledge imposed by various research methods and to suggest how these might be improved. The first part considers individual or pupil-based studies and the second part tackles the problem of how to analyse and interpret data at higher levels of aggregation, such as the school or the LEA.
Harvey Goldstein (Sun,) studied this question.
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