Metabolically engineered probiotic OMVs as nanovaccine mediating sequential immunomodulation for chronic bone infection immunotherapy

Summary Chronic, drug-resistant bone infection caused by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) features an immunosuppressive niche enabling persistent infection and impaired bone healing. A specific treatment requires initial antibacterial immune activation against infection, followed by reshaping an anti-inflammatory microenvironment for later bone repair. Here, we screen Lactococcus lactis outer membrane vesicles (Lac-OMVs) with first-stage dendritic cell (DC) activation and later stage inflammatory macrophage repolarization potential. Mechanistically, enrichment of the nicotinamide metabolism pathway within Lac-OMVs is discovered, with nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD⁺) as a key anti-inflammatory mediator. NAD⁺-enriched Lac-OMVs (NAD⁺-Lac-OMVs) are thus metabolically engineered via targeted culture condition optimization, exerting biphasic immunomodulatory effects: (1) early-stage DC activation establishes robust humoral immunity, protecting against primary and recurrent MRSA challenge (99.35% and 98.07% bacterial clearance rates, respectively); and (2) later stage targeted NAD⁺ delivery reprograms inflammatory macrophages at the defect site, resolving inflammation and establishing a pro-osteogenic microenvironment (∼10 times higher bone-repair rate).