Beyond carbon: resource-based insights from the life cycle assessment of lithium-ion battery recycling and reuse

The push toward carbon neutrality (CN) is driving the electrification of automobiles and adoption of renewable energy facilities, thereby increasing the demand for lithium-ion batteries. However, battery manufacturing involves CO 2 emissions and consumes scarce resources such as Li, Ni, and Co. Recycling and reusing spent batteries are crucial for reducing associated environmental impacts. In this study, we focused on CO 2 emissions and resource consumption, which affects the circular economy (CE). Using the total material requirement (TMR)—the total amount of substances involved, representing the environmental impact per resource type—as an indicator of resource consumption, we found that during manufacturing, the NMC532 and LFP cells generate 1396 and 931 kg TMR/kWh-cell, respectively, and that direct recycling of the cathode active material and copper after use of these cells can reduce TMR by 599 and 313 kg TMR/kWh-cell, respectively. We also found that reducing TMR can sometimes lead to an increase in CO 2 emissions, which indicates that these two factors can be conflicting in life cycle assessment (LCA). The LCA framework proposed here can serve as a practical guide, providing direction for technological development toward a circular battery economy that achieves both CN and CE.