Generative AI and metaverse in developing pre-service teachers’ content knowledge

Although essential for teachers’ professional development, developing content knowledge (CK) remains a challenge in pre-service language teacher education, where applied linguistics concepts are often perceived as disconnected from practice. While research on technology integration emphasizes pedagogical or technological knowledge (TK), little is known about how emerging tools can mediate CK development. Thus, this study implemented a design-based learning project: 23 pre-service English teachers used generative AI (GenAI) and the metaverse to design their brands and 3D showrooms, using applied linguistics concepts. Reflective journals and semi-structured interviews were analyzed through thematic analysis to explore how CK developed through TK and learner agency. The findings show that their CK was enhanced when applied linguistics knowledge was used to craft brands and showrooms through iterative design cycles. Agency mediated this process, as they calibrated the outputs and collaborated through distributed agency, using GenAI and metaverse affordances. Finally, reflective inquiry enhanced critical AI literacy, which supported CK development by prompting participants to work on GenAI-mediated decisions (e.g., reliability, bias, authorship, and inclusion) while designing their artefacts. The study discusses theoretical implications for affordance–agency mechanisms in technology-mediated learning and pedagogical implications for integrating GenAI-metaverse design and critical AI literacy in teacher education.