Unpacking Inner Mongolia’s coal lock-in in China: institutional barriers to clean energy transition

China’s coal transition hinges on whether coal-dependent regions can overcome deeply entrenched barriers. Drawing on carbon lock-in theory, this study examines the historical and institutional foundations of the firm- and market-level constraints facing Inner Mongolia, one of China’s most coal-reliant provinces. It identifies a multifaceted ownership landscape in Inner Mongolia’s coal sector, marked by the entrenchment of central and local state-owned enterprises alongside hybrid public–private partnerships. Mixed, and at times contradictory, signals from national and provincial institutions have undermined the momentum to sustain a coordinated transition. In particular, the absence of a coherent framework for coal phase-out, structurally distorted price signals, and coal’s legally and politically embedded role in national energy supply have led to Inner Mongolia’s position as a major energy centre while also continuing to reinforce its coal dependence. This study offers insights for advancing a more coherent and decisive coal transition in Inner Mongolia, with lessons for other coal-intensive regions in China and beyond.