A multi-modal techno-economic comparison of gaseous and liquid hydrogen routes using Yantai as a case study

To meet Yantai City’s 2030 hydrogen demand (1000 tons for 12 refueling stations), this study develops a quantitative model to assess high-pressure gaseous (CGH 2 , 700 bar) and liquid hydrogen (LH 2 ) across truck, railway, maritime, and pipeline modes. The model systematically analyzes key performance indicators to optimize supply configurations based on Yantai’s geography. For short-distance transport (e.g., Qingdao → Yantai, 200 km), CGH 2 by truck is optimal, with a unit cost of 5.22 CNY/kg, low loss (0.1%), and superior energy efficiency. For long-distance inland routes (e.g., Ordos → Yantai, 1500 km), CGH 2 by rail offers a viable pathway at 3.22 CNY/kg, ideal for inland green hydrogen bases. For international imports (e.g., Australia → Yantai, 8000 km), LH 2 by ship shows a high cost of 14.35 CNY/kg, rendering it economically unattractive due to shipping costs and evaporative losses. Pipeline transport (e.g., Tianjin → Yantai, 300 km) yields prohibitively high costs (CGH 2 : 57.23; LH 2 : 81.53 CNY/kg) at this scale, due to high upfront infrastructure investment. Thus, pipelines should be a long-term strategic option for future large-scale networks. This study confirms that hydrogen form and transport distance are pivotal factors influencing total cost. It advocates for prioritizing a multimodal CGH 2 -based network in the near term. The findings provide quantitative guidance for Yantai’s hydrogen planning and establish a transferable methodological framework for designing hydrogen strategies in comparable coastal cities.