The urgent need for microbiology literacy in society

Microbes and their activities have pervasive, remarkably profound and generally positive effects on the functioning, and thus health and well-being, of human beings, the whole of the biological world, and indeed the entire surface of the planet and its atmosphere. Collectively, and to a significant extent in partnership with the sun, microbes are the life support system of the biosphere. This necessitates their due consideration in decisions that are taken by individuals and families in everyday life, as well as by individuals and responsible bodies at all levels and stages of community, national and planetary health assessment, planning, and the formulation of pertinent policies. However, unlike other subjects having a pervasive impact upon humankind, such as financial affairs, health, and transportation, of which there is a widespread understanding, knowledge of relevant microbial activities, how they impact our lives, and how they may be harnessed for the benefit of humankind – microbiology literacy – is lacking in the general population, and in the subsets thereof that constitute the decision makers. Choices involving microbial activity implications are often opaque, and the information available is sometimes biased and usually incomplete, and hence creates considerable uncertainty. As a consequence, even evidence-based ‘best’ decisions, not infrequently lead to unpredicted, unintended, and sometimes undesired outcomes. We therefore contend that microbiology literacy in society is indispensable for informed personal decisions, as well as for policy development in government and business, and for knowledgeable input of societal stakeholders in such policymaking. An understanding of key microbial activities is as essential for transitioning from childhood to adulthood as some subjects currently taught at school, and must therefore be acquired during general education. Microbiology literacy needs to become part of the world citizen job description. To facilitate the attainment of microbiology literacy in society, through its incorporation into education curricula, we propose here a basic teaching concept and format that are adaptable to all ages, from pre-school to high school, and places key microbial activities in the contexts of how they affect our everyday lives, of relevant Grand Challenges facing humanity and planet Earth, and of sustainability and Sustainable Development Goals. We exhort microbiologists, microbiological learned societies and microbiology-literate professionals, to participate in and contribute to this initiative by helping to evolve the basic concept, developing and seeking funding to develop child-friendly, appealing teaching tools and materials, enhancing its impact and, most importantly, convincing educators, policy makers, business leaders and relevant governmental and non-governmental agencies to support and promote this initiative. Microbiology literacy in society must become reality. Communities of microorganisms create second skins on essentially all body surfaces in contact with the environment of all macroorganisms of the biosphere—the animals and plants. These microbial skins constitute additional, dynamic, ecophysiological barriers that augment the physical and chemical barrier functions (e.g., to pathogen attack) of epithelial surfaces. But, in addition to their barrier activities, such microbial communities engage in multifaceted interactions with their hosts, provide essential functions and have a pervasive influence on the well-being and biological characteristics of the host partners. For example, plant-associated microbes mediate acquisition of essential minerals including nitrogen for growth (indeed, without microbially mediated nitrogen fixation, there would not have been enough biomass production by plant primary producers for the proliferation and evolution of animal consumers), protect against infections and produce hormone-like compounds that promote plant growth. Some microbes carried by plants are toxic to animals and hence function as a plant defence against predators. Microorganisms protect animals from disease, ferment food inside ruminants such as cows and digest food for insects. Although essentially all macroorganisms are covered with surface microbial communities, some also contain so-called endosymbiotic microorganisms that live within host cells. Endosymbionts play important roles in the life cycles of various organisms, like insects (where they may even determine the sex of the host), sponges and plants, and some other microorganisms, like protozoa. The intracellular organelles responsible for harvesting solar energy (plastids) in photosynthetic organisms, and for energy generation (mitochondria) in most organisms, evolved from endosymbiotic bacteria. The microbial component of an organism, the so-called microbiome microbiome: ‘a characteristic microbial community occupying a reasonably well defined habitat which has distinct physio-chemical properties. The term thus not only refers to the microorganisms involved but also encompasses their theatre of activity’ (Whipps et al., 1988), is an essential feature of an organism's identity and ecophysiology: germ-free animals and plants are laboratory freaks with defective developmental programmes that render them unfit and unable to survive in their natural habitats. The integrated whole, consisting of microbiome and host, is termed the biome. Perturbation of the microbiome, leading to so-called dysbiosis, may disturb its relationship with the host and disrupt functions that contribute to well-being, as evidenced by the herbicide glyphosate-provoked perturbation of the bee gut microbial community, leading to an increase in pathogen susceptibility (Motta et al., 2018). The human biome is, in terms of cell numbers, 50% microbial (Sender et al., 2016). Human gut microbes digest much of our food intake and release its nutrients in forms we can assimilate and utilize, provide essential vitamins, amino acids and other micronutrients that we cannot make ourselves, produce hormone-like compounds and thereby act as a second endocrine system (Brown and Hazen, 2015) and play currently unfolding roles in a range of physical and mental diseases (Wang et al., 2017; Du Toit, 2019). A classic example of human microbiome dysbiosis is antibiotic-induced perturbation of the gut microbial community, leading to Clostridium difficile gaining the upper hand and causing pseudomembranous colitis (Bartlett, 1979). It is crucial we recognize that from birth to death we live in an intimate, dynamic and mutually beneficial relationship with our microbial partners, an integrated, reciprocal relationship that to a significant extent specifies what and how—and hence who—we are (and, of course, who they are). To update Descartes: I think, therefore we are. We may fret about how little we know and can trust our human acquaintances, while knowing essentially nothing about our most intimate and influential friends. Attainment of an ability to maximize our personal well-being will require that we comprehend Microbes not only affect us personally as individuals, they have been exploited in the service of humankind since time immemorial, initially in the production of fermented food and drinks (beer, wine, fermented milk of the of of with microbial and, of through of and and of the of food to and its and, in through the microbial of human and of their pathogen to the of and the and of human microbes have taken of the (e.g., et al., there has been a in the the with and other the also the production of in the of a with and in which is (e.g., mediated are to the they not require high energy and toxic and and are generally As a consequence, microbial chemical which a to chemical and on the production of a of have as a and to chemical of into the of are cell and from natural there is a of including microbial for diseases by dysbiosis disease, and various et al., of relevant and to high and The of microbes for the production of and and et al., 2019). The ability to recognize of microbial activities in a to and and to evidence-based decisions on to facilitate their is essential for to be and to It necessitates knowledge of the microbiology at all levels in the decision including the general as key decisions on knowledge of microbiological will be the of well-being, of sustainability and the of The and of our on the of our to Microbes can impact on our in and are thus relevant to personal decisions we such as to birth by natural of the by et al., to the of against human milk to development of et al., et al., microbes in et al., to the of to microbiome and its health and and and indeed be for an et al., et al., can contribute to and in dysbiosis of and a et al., into the et al., what food to (e.g., which has a and is with et al., 2017; other and with and how to and how much to our and course, business can us to and can additional, and activities influence and their consideration is essential for decisions, such as the of a of a in an production of a in a food of a food of a health of of to protect our from we are to make – at the personal policy – decisions that have a high of in and we must know which microbial activities are relevant and how activities impact and be the decisions in our to be informed by a basic understanding of Microbes the forms of life, and are its they will to planet and other life forms have The world of the microbes and the to terms of of life in the is and a component of and are the of food and about of from the to about of the in the Microbes and that influence to the affect as well as the health of plants, and the 50% of the we microbes the that all to as well as the that life to from the to are the and of the Microbes are and their activities and influence the of all life on the are the life support system of the biosphere. Although we to be the of planetary health, microbes are much of and of planetary a of microbes a in to be from the and not be by life on as we know would to The microbiome is, in terms of activities and the only that we may on for the impact of from activities, and human et al., It is essential that we recognize the microbes play in planetary and health, and knowledge of what microbes and can that we may develop and for of the health of our It is that we is currently facing that an in to energy and materials, of due to are some of the Grand The needs of humanity and of planet Earth, and an to needs in a are in the Sustainable Development The for Sustainable A of the range of microbial that are to contribute to attainment of including that can of food for a world et al., 2017; et al., of and some of its of and to maximize of and sustainability of world of natural and (e.g., 2017; and This also the of microbial for growth and to and in part in the of the et al., but also in other A of in the the of The microbiome as a of and job in and the of microbiome to and of the that must be on the Grand Challenges and the will microbial The policy decisions to in their require knowledge of relevant microbial activities and how can be for beneficial Microbes are and key stakeholders in planetary and biological An of due knowledge and consideration of microbial to relevant and a that to into the roles microbes may play in policy development and at all levels and and, in Some of by of in the leading like et al., and et al., about the and of due to and of (indeed, the of of the in in have been since some to the of in (e.g., but to little we to be of the most important in an of infections The by in is in the infections and to a and its of is the for a in and the at the not basic of in animal and is to increase by during the health and business leaders (and, the general been of the ability of microbes to evolve and functions in to in their this the of thus to the of et al., we be in a the of and due to a in and a of understanding of the microbiology and personal which diseases et al., 2018). Although childhood infections to be infections and to microbes is to facilitate development of a system in 2018). The of and which create that all microbes are and must be to a may have to the in in our society (e.g., and even that a against by microbes is through of et al., 2018). have been been taken to provide education on the to to pathogen with to a that us with key ecophysiological including system through microbial from animals and plants and et al., Microbes produce and et al., to microbial on and to increase on the other are microbial in is is to and the that may not be of the by microbes and plants is in to its release from by of is of is levels are our plant and microbial cannot with human in which in of which microbial production of and thereby and the of The production of animal from is by of the a that has been for a production is on which in is to which is by microbes into and the has a of widespread as a in is currently lead to microbial production of the (and, of course, in that can and of on of important personal and policy decisions to have to be the of production and in of essential into in of by which in to the of planetary for a including and the nitrogen as the most due to the that of all natural in this to the et al., is currently a in about the of but the to the world and produce food at a for the of society, from the business of and its are It that be to lead on and as the relationship nitrogen and microbial in the of to is a of the personal and policy which is needs to be to make such and policy decisions with and essentially that that microbes are involved in the production and of significant of including and in addition to we are all in by and hence are key For example, the of and their and thereby in the of diseases of and and plants, with the of is the essential of the It plant growth and is to an of animals and microbes which mediate an range of that functions and determine its surface that into that provide to of and as much as is in the atmosphere. the is often in and its nutrients the are their is by are the of microorganisms produce that act as to and and thereby augment its to The from much of the that is to the of the will in the to produce food to the population, release of of nutrients that will our and release that will increase this is to be is that to microbial activities which To that this is that world as the of the and the microbial But, for acquisition of microbiology literacy is It is not to know that microbes participate in an is essential to know what they well and what they has been to that the of microbes will of all from and without the that there will be But, microbes can an range of materials, the of some is sometimes their production and release into the environment is the ability of microbes to such and as evidenced by the of toxic like and in the food the of their and the currently unfolding of A range of currently facing including the of to the of and its impact on health, and and in the food and to a significant extent of the Grand Challenges that is relevant to the of microbiology literacy is biological and chemical of the human decisions are the can lead to that in the key to its can produce that with in high due to and can be in However, animal for production is a through the generation of animal that of and including Although some of this is in some in the environment may constitute a Although the and life cycles of and are generally into such provide information about of in that little relationship to the the may of for most and that the is in and and are at and some of them through into the to this is the that some may be by microbes to that are not in impact that can be toxic in to of the and that may be even toxic the initially the to such and may have in the environment are to be responsible at in part for levels of in and other and responsible for of like et al., et al., 2018). even is that become in the environment and the impact of of at on the health of and the environment is essentially but Microbes can the to such compounds and will often be the primary of from the However, they may not be to at at they are at and even they are in the of biological and chemical and the microbial to render the only to will be to our understanding of relevant microbial and For including responsible must defined for their life But, to the the microbial world may the only we can on for the on the planet et al., 2016). It is essential that microbial and be and become to development of and will our of to and are to but not key characteristics of our planet to be The is all of the planetary surface and are by and of human which much of what is on the surface and in the and sometimes for of A of this physical is the of to all of the from the they are and the of toxic from their of production and we may the of a chemical at its production to be and may lead to also biological contribute to and in the by and be by in the of and and in the of organisms, and and and and The of in the in an of in by from of diseases due to such as in like and in are of the of biological also a significant in the of and may be responsible for of plant diseases by of the most plant having a impact for and the which have and thus a host is by a range of and thereby a range of plant in that are and at of the may create of sometimes organisms, such as toxic that in and are by to from the in and the of the of and the of to as and of including materials, the and they of unlike microbes can and impact that they The of microbes is in the all microbes are A microbes are to by a they will be there and this A second important characteristic of the planet is the that by natural of often a sometimes an which in a that may be from that It may be due to we that we must an of some in addition to the of and we to into that microbes are not to significant and the they and thereby the of our and We to the are microbial activities involved in by the and, what are their to the we have not learned how to with cannot them what they will we make evidence-based from and how microbes to and are To the act may exhort to act but only due consideration of the for and that may lead to that may be from the The of our planet necessitates we we must be to The is that knowledge of microbes and their activities is in a of the course, society has of to decision makers, for example to about the of of policies. The here is that microbial activities are pervasive and and affect the everyday decisions of in society, that the for of of microbiology knowledge is, to relevant in most we have on hand microbiologists, who have little influence on policy decisions at and on the other policy and decision who key knowledge essential for informed will we facing the of the (e.g., can be and by policy and we are to of the that have to of the the essential information of and evidence-based policy decisions, must be an component of our and knowledge to in the Some of society, such as educators, of of national and agencies and have the of microbiology knowledge their decisions have societal of all individuals make microbially relevant decisions and develop microbially relevant we are all stakeholders in policy decisions our health and well-being and of our To be to our and our to decision makers, as of we must be microbiology is thus a crucial for microbiology literacy at all levels of microbiology literacy must become part of the job of A knowledge and ability acquired during childhood education are generally to be essential for into knowledge of the a affairs, and and have been to constitute essential subjects of a knowledge of subjects is to be an essential of for the of and of the to information for personal and lives, and of the to make decisions that us through and as in contend that knowledge and understanding of microbes and their activities is as essential to general education as Microbiology must become a of the in that decision are and that all other stakeholders a basic understanding of how society and its are and with our microbial As a consequence, societal stakeholders will become to microbes affect our from (indeed, they affect us much teaching at the of primary education and be a all education to decision at all levels to informed decisions on and to provide and with the knowledge to the of such must comprehend the what is what is and what is must be to make evidence-based that them to make decisions about beneficial that some of to with agencies that such decisions on their they must know what knowledge needs to be to make evidence-based in the This has the that the of the microbiology to society to at the of the The of the of are to The microbiology literacy knowledge will initially of a the of Human Earth, and which will become These will be and It must be in of the of of the subjects teaching of microbiological can be for microbiology is a and can at various for relevant to will also be available there are microbial carried by and and agencies plants, and that on what is be at hand by of an of with for of how to the for knowledge and for will be available The in the knowledge are in range in a them to be in their for for some most will be as and hence constitute a system of for and to and and the is for to become with all the of their It must be that is not to create microbiology literacy by teaching the of microbiology and microbiology the is to an knowledge of microbial activities to of society to in everyday life, evidence-based policy development and planetary is essential that society to that the widespread that microbes are our is not only but Microbes are like most have little influence on our lives, are beneficial and only a are to like is the that most and about which we know the is crucial that microbes as a whole are as our as they not only us in our but can be upon to such as food and that the essential microbial 50% of our body are as It is essential that knowledge of microbes in society is to the and of This is of the microbiology literacy and will be at the of its in and not only of the but are also of human society, and the human As they provide and well-being and, as of and of macroorganisms is our As a animal and plant been a of in its and as a for the teaching of human and for education. and macroorganisms in as a of by of their microbes are to the general of of not generally on they create like and This component of the is in general education. in about and their on human and have of microbes in the general microbes essentially the and on a with how their is the without but we not have without our microbial life support It is therefore essential that the microbial world, in all its but from to and and its in the human will thus in literacy and the of microbial (e.g., will the It must become microbes are our can them in their and what they are As microbes from the and they will become will have their and will be by and who all have their by may even become in the This has in in which is a to the of microbiology literacy into Microbiology literacy initiative. Microbiology education in and a et al., in The is to the crucial knowledge and in society to evidence-based decisions on a of personal and societal and to the for a microbiology society, to be through incorporation of a of key microbiology in basic education. The second is to microbiologists, microbiological learned societies and microbially professionals, to participate in and contribute to this by the basic and for and and developing and seeking funding for of the teaching tools and the most of this is to microbiologists, microbiological learned societies and with contact to and influence with educators, business relevant governmental and non-governmental and to in an to of the crucial to microbiology literacy in society are all stakeholders in planetary and human can we to a of our ability to and to them to its to the To facilitate we terms in this that can be for This initiative on of who the to microbiology literacy in our of the and and teaching that can be integrated and facilitate the evolution microbiology literacy teaching curricula, they a