Postprandial lipid and vascular responses following consumption of a commercially-relevant interesterified palmitic acid-rich spread in comparison to functionally-equivalent non-interesterified spread and spreadable butter: a randomised controlled trial in healthy adults

Figures

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  Fig. 1. Study design. FMD, flow-mediated dilatation; TAG, triacylglycerol; PFA, plasma fatty acids; NEFA, non-esterified fatty acids.

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  Fig. 2. Solid fat content of test fats at temperatures 10–40 °C. Solid fat contents of spreads and their respective hardstocks (in the case of spreadable butter, compared to the pure, unblended butter), prior to blending with rapeseed oil, at temperatures from 10 to 40 °C. All fats contained 5% or less solid fat content at body temperature. IE, interesterified.

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  Fig. 3. Flow diagram of the progress through the phases of the trial. FMD, flow-mediated dilatation; iAUC, incremental area under the curve; IE, interesterified; RO, rapeseed oil; SB, spreadable butter; TAG, triacylglycerol.

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  Fig. 4. Postprandial serum fatty acid concentrations following a commercially available interesterified (IE) spread, a functionally equivalent non-IE spread, and spreadable butter, relative to a reference rapeseed oil (RO). Serum total MUFA, PUFA, SFA, n-6 PUFA, n-3 PUFA, and palmitic acid as percentages of total serum fatty acids (mol%). Data are mean (SEM), n = 44–46. Treatment, time and treatment × time interaction effects were all highly statistically significant P < 0.001. MUFA, PUFA, SFA, n-6 PUFA, n-3 PUFA analysed by NMR spectroscopy and palmitic acid by GC. MUFA, monounsaturated; PUFA, polyunsaturated; SFA, saturated.

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  Fig. 5. Postprandial serum triacylglycerol (TAG) concentrations, flow-mediated dilatation (FMD), and serum GlycA and interleukin-6 (IL-6) concentrations following a commercially available interesterified (IE) spread, a functionally equivalent non-IE spread, and spreadable butter, relative to a reference rapeseed oil (RO). Serum TAG (n = 45) concentrations, FMD (n = 46), and serum GlycA (n = 45) and IL-6 (n = 45) concentrations following a test meal containing 50 g fat from 3 different spreads (one commercially available containing IE palm oil fractions, palm kernel oil and RO; one, a non-IE equivalent from mid-fraction palm oil, palm kernel oil, and RO; and the other a spreadable butter (made with butter and RO) relative to a reference RO). Data are geometric means with 95% confidence intervals. Comparison of test fats by linear mixed-model analysis (dependent variable postprandial values, fixed factors of treatment, time, period, treatment × time interaction, treatment × period interaction; random effect participant; covariate baseline, and sex where significant) showed no significant treatment or treatment × time effects for plasma TAG, FMD and IL-6. Significant treatment effect for…

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  Fig. 6. Postprandial serum apolipoprotein concentrations, lipoprotein particle sizes, and lipoprotein subclass particle concentrations following a commercially available interesterified (IE) spread, a functionally equivalent non-IE spread, and spreadable butter, relative to a reference rapeseed oil (RO). Serum apolipoprotein and lipoprotein concentrations, and average lipoprotein particle sizes (n = 44–46) following a test meal containing 50 g fat from 3 different spreads (one commercially available containing IE palm oil fractions, palm kernel oil and RO; one, a non-IE equivalent from mid-fraction palm oil, palm kernel oil, and RO; and the other, a spreadable butter made with butter and RO) relative to a reference RO. Data are geometric means with 95% confidence intervals for ApoB, ApoA1, ApoB : ApoA1 ratio, large LDL particle concentrations, and small LDL particle concentrations, and means with standard errors for average HDL, LDL and VLDL particle sizes and small HDL particle concentrations. Comparison of test fats by linear mixed-model analysis (dependent variable postprandial values; fixed factors of treatment, time, period, treatment × time interaction, treatment × period…

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  Fig. 7. Postprandial plasma concentrations of endotoxin biomarkers following a commercially available interesterified (IE) spread, a functionally equivalent non-IE spread, and spreadable butter, relative to a reference rapeseed oil (RO). Changes from baseline in plasma lipopolysaccharide-binding protein (LBP) concentrations, soluble cluster of differentiation 14 (sCD14) concentrations, and LBP : sCD14 ratio (n = 31–40 per treatment/time point) concentrations following a test meal containing 50 g fat from 3 different spreads (one commercially available containing interesterified (IE) palm oil fractions, palm kernel oil and rapeseed oil; one a non-IE equivalent from mid-fraction palm oil, palm kernel oil, and rapeseed oil; and the other a spreadable butter made with butter and rapeseed oil) relative to a reference rapeseed oil. Data are means with standard errors. Comparison of test fats by linear mixed-model analysis (dependent variable postprandial values, fixed factors of treatment, time, period, treatment × time interaction, treatment × period interaction; random effect participant; covariate baseline) showed no significant treatment or time effects. There was a treatment × time…

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  Fig. 8. Postprandial plasma glucose concentrations, and serum insulin, C-peptide and non-esterified fatty acid (NEFA) concentrations following a commercially available interesterified (IE) spread, a functionally equivalent non-IE spread, and spreadable butter, relative to a reference rapeseed oil (RO). Mean (SE) plasma glucose concentrations (n = 44–45 per treatment/time point), geometric mean (95% CI) serum insulin and c-peptide concentrations (n = 43–45 per treatment/time point), and mean (SE) serum NEFA concentrations (n = 44–45 per treatment/time point) following a test meal containing 50 g fat from 3 different spreads (one commercially available containing interesterified (IE) palm oil fractions, palm kernel oil and rapeseed oil; one a non-IE equivalent from mid-fraction palm oil, palm kernel oil, and rapeseed oil; and the other a spreadable butter made with butter and rapeseed oil) relative to a reference rapeseed oil. Comparison of test fats by linear mixed-model analysis (dependent variable postprandial values, fixed factors of treatment, time, period, treatment × time interaction, treatment × period interaction; random effect participant; covariate baseline) showed significant…