Biofabrication of biocompatible TiO2/bacterial cellulose nanocomposite from Vibrio sp. and camel milk powder wastes for enhanced photocatalytic tetracycline removal

Antibiotic pollution of water systems has emerged as a pressing environmental concern, creating an urgent need for effective remediation strategies. This study investigates the biogenic fabrication of titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO 2 NPs) and their nanocomposite with bacterial cellulose (BC) as promising candidates for environmental remediation. TiO 2 NPs were biosynthesized using cell lysate supernatant of Vibrio sp. df1. TiO 2 NPs, BC and TiO 2 /BC nanocomposites were characterized by comprehensive advanced techniques. The band gap for the TiO₂ NPs was determined to be nearly 3.07 eV and a notably large surface area of 216.61 m²/g. BC production was optimized using Box-Behnken Response Surface Methodology, utilizing waste from a camel milk powder factory as a cost-effective culture medium. Photocatalytic tests demonstrated efficient tetracycline remediation under UV light, with enhanced removal efficiency for the nanocomposite. Biocompatibility assessments on HEK and HUVEC cell lines confirmed that TiO₂ NPs exhibited low cytotoxicity, especially at concentrations up to 12.5 µg/mL, maintaining cell viability above 90%. Crucially, this study employed a fully biogenic strategy with a novel waste-to-wealth approach utilizing camel milk waste. The resulting TiO₂/BC nanocomposite offers a sustainable remediation system with verified biocompatibility.