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The paper aims to enable offline digital cash transactions without relying on secure hardware through a two-layer structural safety mechanism.

July 29, 2026Open Access

Continuity Without Consensus: Toward Offline Digital Cash Without Secure Hardware

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The paper aims to enable offline digital cash transactions without relying on secure hardware through a two-layer structural safety mechanism.
Developed a connected-mode foundation for offline digital cash without secure elements.
Separated guarantees of integrity and uniqueness across independently-operated layers.
Utilized model-checking (TLA+/TLC) to establish safety theorems for sender-collusion scenarios.
Demonstrated that no two conflicting branches are durable in the honest view (Part 1).
Showed that local double-spends are excluded from the honest settled view after detection (Part 2).
Evaluated the system using a deployed multi-node mesh with a single executable cryptographic authority.

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Develops an architectural model for offline digital cash, ensuring safety without secure hardware, suggesting practical advancements.

AXIOM Origin Validator (2026) studied this question.

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