Mechanisms and therapeutic strategies of extracellular vesicles in cardiovascular diseases

Figures

• 

  FIGURE 1. Mechanisms of extracellular vesicles (EVs) in the pathogenesis of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs). EVs from inflammation‐related cells influence the progression of CVDs by inhibiting macrophage polarization, angiogenesis, and promoting inflammatory responses. EVs from cardiac‐related cells influence CVDs progression through regulation of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) and delivery of microRNAs (miRNAs) and circular RNAs (circRNAs). EVs from platelets and serum also play a role in promoting CVDs. The structure schematic diagram of EVs is in the upper left corner. EVs usually contain substances such as DNA, RNA, and proteins. The yellow arrow represents the process of promoting CVDs.

• 

  FIGURE 2. The main mechanism of extracellular vesicles (EVs) derived from different kinds of cardiac cells to promote the repair of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs). EVs derived from cardiac structure‐related cells, such as damaged‐cardiomyocyte and endothelial cells (ECs), promote the repair of CVDs by regulating related signaling pathways. EVs derived from inflammation‐related cells, such as macrophage and polymorphonuclear cells (PMNs), promote the repair of CVDs by regulating related signaling pathways. EVs derived from proliferation‐related cells, such as mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), promote the repair of CVDs by regulating related signaling pathways. EVs derived from differentiation‐related cells, such as cardiac progenitor cells (CPCs) and cardiosphere‐derived cells (CDCs), promote the repair of CVDs by regulating related signaling pathways. The green arrow represents the promotion of CVDs repair.

• 

  FIGURE 3. The main mechanism of extracellular vesicles (EVs) derived from different kinds of stem cells to promote the repair of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs). EVs derived from bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) can promote cardiac repair by reducing inflammation, inhibiting apoptosis, and regulating autophagy. EVs derived from other types of stem cells, such as adipose tissue mesenchymal stem cells (ADSCs), human umbilical cord‐derived mesenchymal stem cells (HUCMSCs), cardiac mesenchymal stem cells (C‐MSCs), trophoblast stem cells (TSCs), and neural stem cells (NSCs) can promote CVDs repair by regulating related signaling pathways. EVs derived from induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) or differentiated iPSCs promote the repair of CVDs through microRNA (miRNA) and long non‐coding RNA (lncRNA) delivery. The green arrow represents the promotion of CVDs repair.

• 

  FIGURE 4. The main treatment of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) based on extracellular vesicle (EV) modification. Therapeutic molecules such as microRNA (miRNA) and proteins were loaded into EVs to treat myocardial injury in mouse models. EVs isolated from cells pretreated with the drugs has the effect of treating CVDs. EVs modified by membrane engineering and genetic engineering can better target and treat the damaged areas of the cardiac. EVs can be combined with different kinds of hydrogels to make therapeutic cardiac patches or cardiac scaffolds, which have therapeutic effects in mouse and pig models.