Self-efficacy

Self-efficacy is a construct that focuses on an individual’s evaluation of their capacity to do something successfully in a given situation. Albert Bandura defined the construct as ‘people’s judgements of their capabilities to organise and execute courses of action required to attain designated types of performances’ (Bandura 1986: 391). A crucial point to understand is that the concept relates to beliefs about one’s perceived abilities or inabilities to complete a specific task, and not to one’s actual capabilities or performance (Mills, Pajares and Herron 2007). Initial interest in self-efficacy emerged with the development of social cognitive theories in which individuals are understood to be active agents in control of their own choices and behaviours (Wyatt 2018a). Bandura (1977) made a significant contribution to these developments by showing how self-efficacy beliefs can influence our choice of activities, the amount of effort we expend on them, and our persistence in completing them, especially in the face of challenges. To understand how an individual’s self-efficacy beliefs emerge, Bandura (1977, 1997) identified four different sources: (1) mastery experiences; (2) vicarious experiences; (3) verbal persuasion; and (4) physiological and affective states. ‘Mastery experiences’ correspond to a person’s recollection of and reflection on their own past accomplishments in similar tasks, while ‘vicarious experiences’ are gained from seeing or hearing about the accomplishments of others. ‘Verbal persuasion’ relates to the appraisals or feedback provided by others, while ‘physiological and affective states’ concern a person’s interpretation of information derived through their own senses. Being aware of these different sources can help us gain a better understanding of how self-efficacy beliefs are formed, and, importantly, how they may be changed. Research shows that self-efficacy beliefs can influence academic motivation, learning and achievement (Schunk 1995; Pajares 1996; Schunk and Pajares 2002). Taking this into account, the most useful efficacy judgements may be those that slightly exceed one’s actual capabilities, ‘as this modest overestimation can actually increase effort and persistence during difficult times’ (Artino 2012: 77). The emphasis, nevertheless, is on ‘modest’, as over-estimating one’s abilities may lead to inappropriate behaviour or unrealistic expectations. This is illustrated by Wyatt’s (2018a) focus on language teacher self-efficacy, showing how an inflated sense of ability can lead to effort reduction or complacency. Wyatt’s hypothetical examples of different teacher expectations and behaviours shows how a teacher with low self-efficacy may avoid certain tasks, while, at the other extreme, a teacher with an excessively high sense of efficacy may become complacent, putting less effort into the task than may be required (Wyatt 2018a: 124). While strong self-efficacy beliefs can help us face challenges and stay committed to our goals, low levels can have the opposite effect, generating avoidance behaviour, and negative feelings that can have a detrimental effect not only on performance, but also on our wellbeing. Within the specific area of foreign language education, there are two main strands of self-efficacy research: one focusing on learners, and the other focusing on teachers. Work focusing on learner self-efficacy has helped stress the link between student self-efficacy beliefs and motivation or achievement in foreign language learning. Identifying low self-efficacy beliefs can be a first step towards promoting more positive and realistic attitudes to foreign language learning (Waddington 2019) and improving language learners’ abilities to develop their own self-regulating strategies (Zhang 2020). Bandura’s (1977) description of the four different sources of self-efficacy beliefs can be used to identify specific areas where teachers can work to boost learners’ self-awareness. For example, in relation to mastery experiences, understanding how learners interpret and make sense of their successes or failures is considered a basic component of motivational teaching practice (Dörnyei 2001). Interpretations of past successes or failures can reinforce negative self-beliefs (‘I failed because I’m useless at languages’) or identify aspects that can be worked on constructively to improve self-efficacy and performance (‘I’ll have more chance of succeeding if I focus on . . .’). As Ushioda states, ‘the ideal motivational scenario is one in which students attribute positive outcomes to personal ability, and negative outcomes to temporary shortcomings that can be remedied’ (1996: 13). Regarding vicarious experiences, activities involving peer modelling and peer observation can provide opportunities for learners to build their own self-efficacy by watching others perform tasks successfully (Waddington 2019). ‘Near peer role models’ (Muir 2018) can be particularly inspiring by demonstrating that foreign language learning is achievable. Defining ‘near peer role models’ as those who are comparable to us in one or more fundamental ways, Muir (2018) suggests that they can help their peers establish more attainable and realistic language learning goals, counteracting the tendency to position native speakers as the standard benchmark or most desirable model to follow. Considering verbal persuasion, teachers can play a key role in encouraging positive and realistic self-efficacy beliefs by providing learners with salient and timely feedback that encourages them to identify areas for improvement and to recognise that these improvements are within their reach. Finally, in relation to physiological and affective states, positive and constructive self-efficacy beliefs can be fostered by ensuring that learners’ emotions are duly considered in the language classroom (Miyahara 2015), and that efforts are taken to detect and minimise the discomforts and anxieties that have long been recognised as potential barriers to foreign language learning (Horwitz, Horwitz, and Cope 1986). Work focusing on language teachers’ self-efficacy has emerged this century (Wyatt 2018b), underpinned by the growing awareness that teacher efficacy can significantly influence student achievement levels, teacher attitudes towards innovations, and beliefs in their ability to cope with changes (Thompson and Woodman 2019). Attending to teacher self-efficacy could be implemented as part of a wider focus on self-care and self-development to promote teacher wellbeing, which is a fundamental basis for effective teaching (Mercer and Gregerson 2020). Mercer and Gregerson (2020) present several practical tasks that could be used in teacher training settings, or indeed by individual teachers, to build healthy and realistic self-efficacy beliefs. One task resonates with the mastery experiences discussed above, concerning how learners interpret and make sense of their successes or failures: As a language teacher, you will have a greater sense of control and efficacy if you can attribute successes and failures to elements over which you can have an impact, rather than elements that are beyond your control – a type of attribution which can ultimately lead to a sense of helplessness. (Mercer and Gregerson 2020: 42) Exploring attitudes and beliefs to language teaching ideologies and practices can also help identify issues that can impact self-efficacy levels, as demonstrated in a recent study which detected a strong link between low self-efficacy beliefs among preservice preschool teachers and the prevalence of the ‘ideal native speaker teacher’ model (Waddington 2022). The assumption that ‘native must be best’ held by most participants had a negative effect on their self-beliefs, leading to disempowering views about their capacity to be effective early years language teachers, and reinforcing discriminatory attitudes in which they assumed positions of inferiority. Reflecting on these views and assumptions throughout a focused teaching intervention led to a readjustment of beliefs and a significant increase in self-efficacy levels. Interventions like this can have a significant impact on future teachers by raising awareness of debilitating beliefs that affect ‘non-native English-speaking teachers’ (Selvi 2011), challenging ‘imposter syndrome’ (Bernat 2009), or the feeling that they will never be good enough. On the other hand, the self-efficacy beliefs of ‘native-speaker teachers’ may also be affected if their own variety of English use is being dismissed or questioned (Dörnyei and Ushioda 2011), or if they are being positioned negatively as unqualified backpackers (Wyatt 2018a). Considering these issues in the context of teacher education, Banegas (2020) shows how teacher development needs to be considered in the widest sense of the term, taking into account personal as well as professional experiences. Working with ELT educators, his work demonstrates how self-efficacy beliefs are influenced by the range of cultural, individual, and professional funds of knowledge that teachers draw on to support their teaching. Recognising and leveraging the diverse funds of knowledge and skills that teachers bring to the classroom can help challenge deficit views and foster more affirmative self-beliefs with clear and realistic future development goals. Advancing knowledge on psychological issues that affect learners is crucial to inform and enhance foreign language teaching and learning (Williams, Mercer, and Ryan 2015). The self-efficacy of learners and teachers should receive greater attention in all spheres of learning and development in order to positively influence achievement levels and contribute to the wellbeing of both students and teachers. Julie Waddington Dept. Didàctiques Específiques / Facultat d’Educació i Psicologia, University of Girona, 17004 Girona, Spain. Email: julie.waddington@udg.edu