Problem Formulation: Its Portrayal in the Texts

Problem formulation often is referred to as the most critical phase in the planning, problem solving and decision making processes (Einstein & In-feld, 1983; Tversky & Kahneman, 1974; Ackoff, 1978). Because problem formulation occurs in the early stages of these processes, it can affect the direction of all succeeding stages (Nutt, 1984). Thus, solving the wrong problem (i.e., formulating the problem with incorrect presumptions con-cerning needs and opportunities) can result in significant monetary losses as well as problem solving ineffectiveness. Over the past fifteen years the topic of problem formulation has received increasing attention from researchers and practitioners. During this period, the link between problem formulation and solution generation has been clarified (Kohler, 1969; Posner, 1973; Simon & Hayes, 1976), and guidelines for stating problems have been proposed (Elbing, 1970). Both the analytical and the political dimensions of the formulation phase have been examined (Narayanan & Fahey, 1982). Prescriptive and descriptive models