Deriving health-based attendance guidelines for recreational campfires: a multi-pathway risk assessment of exposure to PAHs and VOCs

Recreational campfires are popular, yet simultaneous dietary and inhalation exposure to carcinogenic PAHs remains rarely quantified. This pilot study presents an integrated health risk assessment for a campfire where sausages were roasted over a wood fire. Food samples were analyzed for 16 PAHs. Airborne PM2.5, gas- and particle-phase PAHs, and BTEX were monitored 1 m from the fire. Incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILCR) was calculated for four exposure scenarios varying in age, inhalation rate, and consumption. Campfire roasting substantially increased PAH levels: BaP (29 µg kg−1) and PAH4 (104 µg kg−1) exceeded EU limits 5.8- and 3.5-fold, while BaP toxic equivalents rose 25-fold to 41.7 µg kg−1. Average PM2.5 during the 2.5-h fire was 350 µg m−³, yielding a 24-h mean (∼42 µg m−³) above the EU daily limit (25 µg m-³). Total airborne PAHs were 29.85 µg m−³ (mainly gaseous), alongside 153 µg m−³ of benzene. ILCRs ranged 2.7 × 10−7–8.1 × 10−5, with dietary intake contributing 70%–80%. Based on these findings, we derived provisional health guidelines: adults consuming no campfire-cooked sausages can attend up to 37 events per year without exceeding acceptable risk (ILCR < 10−5), whereas consuming two sausages per event restricts attendance to seven campfires. This assessment shows that even occasional campfires entail substantial multi-pathway PAH exposure, underscoring the need for risk-informed participation guidelines.