Converting Raw Data Into Actionable Information: A topical review of artificial intelligence, machine learning, and digital twins in disaster management

Advances in Earth observations [from satellites, ground measurements, Internet of Things (IoT) devices, and both physical sensors (PSs) and virtual sensors (VSs)], artificial intelligence (AI), and telecommunications offer tremendous potential for disaster management. Converting these data streams into actionable information, however, requires structured and standardized approaches. Most existing literature reviews focus on a single element, Earth observations, AI, or digital twins (DTs), without examining their combined potential. This review article integrates AI, DTs, and geospatial data fusion into a novel unified technology ecosystem for disaster management, highlighting DTs as a framework for data integration, a host environment for AI, and a tool for simulation and visualization. We also identify key performance gaps, illustrate their implications through disaster-relevant examples, and outline a research and implementation road map, providing a comprehensive foundation for advancing operational AI-enabled DTs.