Immunization to and Alleviation of Learned Helplessness in Man

Subjects given a choice-reaction-time task (task 1) with uncontrollable shock reacted more slowly on a transfer motor task (task 2) than subjects with controllable shock on task 1. Subjects given controllable and then uncontrollable shock on task 1 demonstrated a recency effect on task 2: the transfer set seemed based on the contingencies of the final trials of task 1. Subjects given uncontrollable shock on task 1 and then informed that the shock on task 2 would be controllable showed an alleviation of the helplessness learned in task 1 and reacted more quickly on task 2 than subjects who had had controllable shock or no shock on task 1. Learned helplessness was consistent and resistant to change at 0-, 1-, and 24-hour intervals.