Heart regeneration from the whole-organism perspective to single-cell resolution

Figures

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  Fig. 1. Evidence for internal and external factors inducing cardiomyocyte binucleation and cell-cycle arrest, key barriers for heart regeneration potential. a Cardiomyocyte binucleation and cell-cycle arrest occurs at different perinatal windows in different mammalian species. b External factors affecting cardiomyocyte proliferation and binucleation. The switch from hypoxic environment to normoxic condition after birth. The transition to fat-rich diets happens after birth. The changes from relative-sterile womb to microbiome exposure after birth. These changes of external factors coincide with postnatal cell cycle arrest and cardiomyocyte maturation in certain mammalian species. These images were created with Biorender.com.

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  Fig. 2. Internal endocrine, neural, and immune regulators of cardiomyocyte proliferation and heart regeneration. Endocrine factors thyroid hormone, glucocorticoid, and vitamin D may inhibit cardiomyogenesis. Sex hormones like estrogens and androgen may promote cardiomyogenesis. Neural system like sympathetic nervous system inhibits cardiomyocyte expansion whereas those from the parasympathetic nervous system promote proliferation. Immune cells modulate cardiac repair and regeneration. The image was created with Biorender.com.

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  Fig. 3. Composition of cardiac cell population. Part of the image was created with Biorender.com.