Heterogeneity in preschool executive function development: a latent class growth analysis of trajectory subgroups and family environment predictors

Executive function (EF) develops rapidly during the preschool years, yet most research assumes a single developmental trajectory for all children. This study adopted a person-centered approach to uncover heterogeneity in preschool EF development and to identify family environment predictors of trajectory class membership. A total of 486 children (aged 36–71 months) were assessed on inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility at three time points over 12 months. Latent class growth analysis revealed three distinct trajectory classes: High-Stable Growth (42.4%), Moderate-Slow Growth (38.1%), and Low-Lagging (19.5%). Multinomial logistic regression indicated that parent–child interaction quality was the strongest predictor of trajectory membership, followed by socioeconomic status, authoritative parenting, and the home learning environment. Authoritarian parenting significantly differentiated the highest- from the lowest-performing group but did not distinguish adjacent classes. These findings demonstrate that a single average growth curve obscures meaningful developmental heterogeneity and highlight the primacy of relational quality in the family context for supporting optimal EF growth. Implications for early screening and tiered intervention design are discussed.