The Prognostic Value of Derivatives-Reactive Oxygen Metabolites (d-ROMs) for Cardiovascular Disease Events and Mortality: A Review

Figures

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  Figure 1. Articles identified on PubMed using “oxidative stress” and “cardiovascular disease” as keywords from 2000 to 2021.

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  Figure 2. Flow diagram of the literature search.

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  Figure 3. ROS are physiologically produced at low concentration (baseline values, green). ROS have either beneficial effects at middle-low concentration for a short time (orange) or harmful effects at higher concentration for a prolonged time (red).

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  Figure 4. The RedOx balance is preserved by the existing equilibrium between ROS production rate and antioxidant defence systems. Highlighted in red are possible sources of ROS; and in green, the antioxidant defences. Oxidative stress (OS) occurs when there is an overproduction of ROS or a reduced ability of antioxidant defences to counteract the production of ROS. Oxidative stress can induce cellular and tissue injury.

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  Figure 5. Schematic representation of the oxidative-stress reactive chain with highlighted representative chemical species at the initiation, propagation, and termination stages.

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  Figure 6. Schematic representation of the sequential reactions occurring in the d-ROMs test.

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  Figure 7. Graphical representation of the data reported in Table 3. The data were grouped depending on population groups (small cohorts of individuals with known cardiovascular disease (CVD) and general-population-based cohorts), clinical outcomes (all cardiovascular (CV) events, cardiovascular mortality, and all-cause mortality) and statistical parameters (HR). (A) Hazard ratio and 95% CI for all CV events in small cohorts of individuals with known CVD [77,78,79,81,82,84]; (B) hazard ratio and 95% CI for all-cause mortality in general-population-based cohorts [97,98]. * ESTHER cohort; ** DIANA cohort; # Meta-analysis of ESTHER and DIANA cohorts with HR provided for the d-ROM/TTL ratio top tertile.

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  Figure 8. Graphical representation of the data reported in Table 3. The data were grouped depending on clinical outcomes (Xuan et al., 2018 [96] a OR for myocardial infarction; Xuan et al., 2018 [96] b OR for fatal myocardial Infarction) and statistical parameters (OR).

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  Figure 9. Graphical representation of the data reported in Table 3. The data were grouped depending on clinical outcomes (all-cause mortality and cardiovascular mortality) and statistical parameters (RR), as reported in Schöttker et al., 2015 [68].