XR in cultural heritage: a comparative study of motivation, presence, and engagement across 360° virtual tours, VR, and AR at the archaeological site of Villa Regina

As immersive technologies gain prominence in cultural heritage, understanding their specific experiential qualities has emerged as a central research challenge. This study presents a rigorously controlled comparative analysis of three immersive systems: virtual reality (VR), 360° virtual tours (VR360), and augmented reality (AR), deployed at the archaeological site of Villa Regina in Boscoreale, Italy. Despite the widespread integration of immersive technologies at cultural heritage sites, direct comparisons remain challenging due to variations in content, interface design, and assessment methods. To resolve this, three experiences were developed within a unified production framework using identical digital assets. Narrative structure, informational content, and interface logic were standardized across all conditions. A between-subjects experiment with 90 participants explored differences in intrinsic motivation, perceived presence, and user engagement using validated post-experience questionnaires and semi-structured interviews. The results show that VR elicited the greatest spatial presence and engagement, AR improved perceived realism and contextual authenticity, and VR360 offered the most accessible but least immersive experience. This study proposes a reproducible methodological framework for systematic comparisons of immersive systems and provides evidence-based design recommendations for digital cultural heritage experiences.