Electron Spectroscopy for Atoms, Molecules, and Condensed Matter

The basic theoretical considerations involved in developing instruments for electron spectroscopy for atoms and solids are discussed. To be competitive with x-ray emission or absorption spectroscopy methods, electron spectroscopy would have to achieve such high resolution that well-defined electron lines would be obtained with line widths equal to or close to the atomic levels themselves. Chronology of development of equipment to achieve these demands on resolution is discussed. Successful instrument development led to application of electron spectroscopy to the chemical analysis of all elements in the periodic system and the coining of the acronym ESCA (electron spectroscopy for chemical analysis). Numerous applications of ESCA are described. A brief overview of recent development of new electron spectroscopic instrumentation is included, and several reviews and books published on the subject during the 1970s are among the 260 references cited. (BLM)