Integrated pest management theory and practice

Integration in pest management may be conceived at three distinct levels: (a) integration of tactics, (b) integration of the effects of multiple pest stresses, and (c) systems integration. The ecological basis of each is found in population, community or ecosystems processes, respectively. Most current IPM programs are attempts to integrate control tactics into management strategies and therefore only require knowledge of species and population ecology. Further advancement of IPM will require higher levels of integration but the experimental basis of and information on community and ecosystems processes are insufficient to permit reaching these levels. Mostly entomological examples in the grain legumes are used to demonstrate achievements of IPM at level a (tactical integration), and the difficulties involved in advancing towards integration of multiple pest stresses and systems integration (levels b and c). General requisites towards the design and implementation of IPM programs are outlined.