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It is shown that invariant foci exist for skew rays, and simple formulae are obtained for the change in aberration relative to those foci due to refraction or reflection at an interface. The formulae are valid for any form of interface Expressions for focal shifts are obtained together with check formulae The method makes possible the analysis of the aberrations along skew rays as they arise at individual surfaces.
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Harold H. Hopkins (1952) studied this question.
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