Micro- and nanoplastics in terrestrial plants: uptake, accumulation, and impacts on growth and physiology

Microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics (NPs) are increasingly recognized as serious environmental pollutants, especially in soils, water, and air. These tiny plastic particles result from the degradation of larger plastic waste, often due to inadequate waste management. Although many studies have focused on their effects in aquatic ecosystems, the impacts of MPs and NPs on terrestrial plants and ecosystems remain less understood. This review summarizes current knowledge on the uptake, translocation and accumulation of MPs and NPs by plants and their associated microorganisms. The review discusses how these plastic particles enter plants through roots, leaves, and other pathways, their movement within plant tissues, and their accumulation. It also shows how plants may limit the mobility of these particles and how plant-microbial interactions can support phytoremediation processes. The effects of MPs and NPs on plant health are examined, including changes in seed germination, root development, and biomass production. At the molecular level, impacts on photosynthesis, chlorophyll content, reactive oxygen species generation, oxidative stress, and nutrient uptake pathways are also considered. Understanding these interactions is essential for assessing the risks posed by plastic pollution to agriculture and natural ecosystems and for developing strategies to mitigate their negative effects on plant growth and productivity.