Comparative computation of forces and torques of electromagnetic devices by means of different formulae

This paper presents results of force and torque calculations using Finite Difference Method in integral form as well as Finite Element Method with Hermitian Elements. Forces and torques have been calculated by the Maxwell stress tensor and the virtual work principle. Calculation results for reversible electromechanical converters and stepping motors have been considered giving some practical conclusions about advantages of the different methods.>