Screen-Printed Electrodes for Bioelectrochemical Sensing

Screen-printed electrodes (SPEs) have emerged as pivotal platforms for next-generation biosensing by combining low cost, disposability, reproducibility, and scalable manufacturing. This review examines their evolution, working principles, ink formulations, substrate choices, and bioreceptor immobilization strategies, with emphasis on enzyme-, antibody-, aptamer-, and molecularly imprinted polymer-based interfaces. Particular attention is given to water-based inks, nanostructured conductive materials, and laser-enabled surface engineering that enhance electron transfer (ET) and analytical performance. Recent advances in wearable, point-of-care, and multi-analyte formats highlight SPEs as enabling technologies for decentralized diagnostics. Remaining challenges include long-term stability, standardization, and industrial-scale translation across clinical, environmental, and food monitoring applications.