From intention to adoption: integrating DOI, TAM, and TPB to design extension strategies for smallholder dairy systems

Purpose This study reviews determinants of recommended dairy farming practices (RDFP) adoption in smallholder systems, with emphasis on arid, resource-constrained regions such as Sindh, Pakistan, and examines the intention-behavior gap through DOI, TAM, and TPB.Methodology A PRISMA-guided systematic review of 79 peer-reviewed studies (2015–2025) was complemented by VOSviewer keyword co-occurrence analysis of 115 articles.Findings Financial constraints and weak extension services frequently override positive behavioral intentions. Bibliometric mapping shows a disconnect between technically oriented dairy-farming research and farmer-centered adoption factors.Practical implications Extension strategies should move from top-down transfer toward participatory, digitally supported approaches. Peer learning and simple, low-tech digital tools may improve uptake among low-literacy populations.Theoretical implications An integrated framework linking structural barriers (DOI), cognitive evaluations (TAM), and behavioral factors (TPB) offers a stronger context-sensitive explanation than single-theory approaches.Originality/value The review unifies structural, cognitive, and behavioral determinants of RDFP adoption and interprets adoption challenges in arid, resource-constrained dairy systems through an integrated theoretical lens.