Inequality and Mathematics Achievement

Digital inequality continues to influence mathematics outcomes in South Africa, where disparities in access, skills, and pedagogical use of digital tools persist despite expanding infrastructure. This study employed a quantitative, cross-sectional design and multilevel modeling to investigate the relationships between material access, digital skills, and mathematics outcomes among Grade 5 and Grade 9 learners. Guided by Van Dijk’s digital divide theory, the analysis drew on nationally representative TIMSS 2023 (Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study) data, including plausible values for mathematics linked to learner, teacher, and school questionnaires. Home internet access improved outcomes only in Grade 9, while the self-reported ability to create presentations and graphs was negatively associated with performance in Grade 5. School-level predictors also differed: occasional, teacher-guided use of school devices and the presence of a learning management system were more supportive of Grade 5 outcomes, whereas high-speed internet and in-class device availability were more influential in Grade 9. Across both grades, information-search and basic productivity skills were consistently associated with higher performance. The study shows that material access alone is insufficient; digital skills, pedagogical structure, and grade-sensitive integration are central to translating technology into improved mathematics outcomes within unequal schooling systems.