Horse selection for sacrificial practice in Qin culture during the late Warring States period: Evidence from the Beishenjiaqiao site

Horse sacrifice played an essential role in the elite mortuary ritual from the Shang period (ca. 16th century to 11th century BCE) down to the first unification of China under the Qin Dynasty. Whilst numerous historical texts, corroborated by archaeological discoveries, have attested to its importance, the lack of detailed zooarchaeological analysis has limited deeper understanding of the principles underlying horse selection and, more broadly, the dynamics at the core of human–horse relationships in early China. Based on the recent discovery of Qin sacrificial pits at the Beishenjiaqiao site in Shaanxi Province, dated to the late Warring States period (ca. mid-5th century to late 3rd centry BCE), this zooarchaeological study reveals a deliberate selection of both male and female horses, with a strong emphasis on juveniles and prime-aged adults. Skeletal evidence indicates that these horses were working animals, rather than being bred solely for ritual purposes, reflecting a combination of practical value and ritual significance. Patterned deposition and selective disarticulation demonstrate a structured ritual process, while the joint interment of horses with pigs, dogs, and humans reflects a multi-species sacrificial tradition distinct from both contemporary elite burials and standardized state rituals. By integrating zooarchaeological data with regional comparative analysis, this study illuminates the ways in which Qin communities mobilised horses resources at the local level, while also revealing how ritual practice, animal management, and military organisation intersected. It addresses a key gap in our understanding of non-elite Qin sacrificial strategies during the transition to the first unified dynasty.