Electrochemistry of surface-confined enzymes: Inspiration, insight and opportunity for sustainable biotechnology

Redox enzymes can generate electricity from sunlight and produce valuable chemicals, including fuels, from low-value materials. When an electrode takes the role of an enzyme's natural redox partner, these properties inspire creative approaches to generate renewable resources. Enzymatic fuel cells produce electricity, enzyme electrosynthesis drives chemical transformations and biophotovoltaics harness solar energy. Underpinning rational development of these applications, time-dependent currents resolved by dynamic electrochemistry provide quantitative insight into the determinants of enzyme activity. This article reviews popular and emerging routes to sequester, study and exploit redox enzymes on two- and three-dimensional electrode materials. Studies are highlighted that draw on synergies of these different aspects of enzyme electrochemistry.