The science of adapted throws: a systematic search and narrative evidence synthesis

Introduction: Paralympic throwing events have grown rapidly, yet the scientific evidence guiding technique, training and classification remains fragmented across biomechanics, physiology and psychosocial domains. Objective: To provide an evidence-based overview of adapted throws by comprehensively examining the peer-reviewed literature. Methods: A systematic search of PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science (inception-Feb 2025) using the terms Paralympic OR adapted OR disability AND throw AND (shot OR discus OR javelin OR club). Inclusion criteria comprised: (i) Athletes with physical impairments who participate in Para Athletics throwing events, (ii) Non-disabled individuals studied in research explicitly designed to inform or understand Para Athletics throwing techniques. Data were synthesized narratively and clustered by study theme. Results: in F52-F55 shot put) and optimal angles (27.5°-37°) as key performance determinants. Assistive devices improved results by 8% in F32 athletes. Significant research gaps exist for visual impairment (F11-F13), intellectual impairment (F20), and prosthesis-user classes (F61-F64). Conclusion: While class-specific technical models are emerging, particularly for seated throwers, 38% of throwing classifications lack published research. Future studies should prioritize underrepresented classes and develop standardized assessment protocols.