Application of acoustic time of flight measurements for non-destructive evaluation of wood properties in standing trees for tree breeding programs

In tree breeding, the acoustic Time-of-Flight (TOF) method has emerged as a valuable non-destructive tool for the rapid screening and selection of trees with desirable wood quality traits. This systematic narrative review was conducted and reported in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. Relevant studies were identified through a systematic literature search using predefined keywords and inclusion and exclusion criteria. The review provides a comprehensive overview of the fundamental principles of TOF technology and compares its performance with conventional methods used for assessing tree wood quality and structural characteristics. Beyond these fundamentals, the review examines diverse applications such as individual tree monitoring, early anomaly detection such as decay, cavities, cracks, and structural deterioration, and use of TOF in labor reduction through automation. Case studies on Picea glauca , Pinus radiata and Pinus sylvestris L. underscore both achievements and ongoing challenges, culminating in a forward-looking discussion on future innovations and TOF’s pivotal role in advancing efficient tree breeding practices.