Aflatoxins M1 and M2 in Raw Milk and Milk Powder: Seasonal and Geographic Occurrence with Evaluation of β-Cyclodextrin Polymers for AFM1 Removal

Aflatoxins M1 (AFM1) and M2 (AFM2) pose public health risks, necessitating monitoring and mitigation strategies. Climate change increases the risk of aflatoxin contamination in animal feed, particularly maize silage, which may lead to the carry-over of these toxins into milk. This study evaluated the occurrence of AFM1 and AFM2 in raw milk from Polish conventional dairy farms during different feeding seasons and milk powder samples (n = 70) purchased from retail markets in Poland (35), the Czech Republic (6), Slovakia (9), Hungary (10), and Iran (10). Additionally, the efficacy of β-cyclodextrin bead polymers (BCPs) was investigated. Results showed an excellent safety profile of milk powder in the V4 countries (Czech Republic, Slovakia, and Hungary), remaining below the LOQ. Of the 284 raw milk samples tested, AFM1 was detected above the LOQ in 4 samples, whereas AFM2 was detected above the LOQ in 3 samples. Polish raw milk was generally pure, although a few isolated positive findings were recorded, mainly in winter and spring. Among the Polish milk powder samples, AFM1 was detected in 2 samples at concentrations of 0.077 and 0.101 µg/kg, and AFM2 was detected in 1 sample at a level of 0.049 µg/kg. In the Iranian samples, AFM1 was detected in 2 cases at 0.042 and 0.049 µg/kg, whereas AFM2 was detected in 5 samples at concentrations ranging from 0.011 to 0.026 µg/kg. Decontamination assays demonstrated that BCPs can effectively remove AFM1 from dairy matrices. The physicochemical properties of milk significantly influenced binding capacity; superior removal efficiency was observed in raw and skim milk compared with homogenized milk. These results underscore the need for region-specific monitoring and suggest that BCP-based technological interventions may represent a complementary safety approach. Nevertheless, further studies are needed to evaluate its applicability in dairy processing.