Advances in Green Electrochemical Pathways for Sustainable Mineral and Metal Processing

The need to decarbonize mineral and metal industries has intensified interest in electrochemical technologies as sustainable alternatives to conventional hydrometallurgical and pyrometallurgical processes. By using electrons as clean and controllable redox agents, electrochemical pathways enable selective metal dissolution, deposition, separation, and transformation under relatively mild conditions, while reducing hazardous reagent use and secondary waste generation. This review provides an integrated assessment of green electrochemical pathways for sustainable mineral and metal processing. Fundamental principles governing electrochemical metallurgical transformations are first discussed, including redox thermodynamics, pH-dependent stability, electrode potential control, interfacial reaction kinetics, and mass-transfer behavior. Key technological components, including reactor configurations, electrode materials, membranes, and electrolyte systems, are then examined in relation to process efficiency, energy demand, selectivity, and operational stability. Major electrochemical routes, including oxidative and reductive pathways, slurry electrolysis, membrane-assisted systems, molten-salt electrolysis, electrokinetic separation, and external field–enhanced electrochemical processes, are critically evaluated. The review further examines electrochemical recovery of metals from industrial wastes and secondary resources, including e-waste, spent batteries, metallurgical slags, fly ash, spent catalysts, magnet scraps, and other residues, with emphasis on circular resource utilization, waste valorization, and closed-loop metal recovery. Economic barriers and life-cycle assessment considerations are also discussed to evaluate the practical feasibility and environmental performance of these technologies. Finally, future research directions are highlighted, including AI-assisted process optimization, bio-electrochemical hybrid systems, renewable-electricity integration, electrolyte recycling, reactor scale-up, and life-cycle-based process design to support low-carbon and circular metallurgical processing.