Visual Impression of Urban Space: A Systematic Review of Empirical Findings, Challenges, and Opportunities

Studies of visual impression seek to link the visual features of urban spaces with users’ subjective experiences (e.g., perceiving and describing a space as “inviting”). By revealing the relationships between visual characteristics and users’ experiences, such studies can inform the design of urban environments. However, this emerging field remains fragmented and would benefit from comprehensive syntheses. Here, we report on a PRISMA-based systematic review of empirical studies on visual impression in urban settings and organize them according to (1) purpose, (2) method, and (3) findings. The Web of Science Core Collection was searched (March 2026) for English-language empirical studies on visual impression in urban environments. Review articles, non-empirical studies, and studies unrelated to visual impression of urban spaces were excluded. A total of 46 studies met the eligibility criteria. To minimize classification bias, four reviewers worked in two pairs, with each study classified independently by two reviewers. The review identified three major research foci, characterized current methodological approaches, and synthesized empirical relationships between visual features and users’ impressions. It further highlights methodological challenges, research gaps, and opportunities to strengthen the rigor and generalizability of future studies. Future reviews could extend the evidence base by incorporating additional databases and the earlier literature.