Seasonal Snow Water Resources and Spring Runoff Harvesting Potential in the North Kazakhstan Region: An Integrated Remote Sensing and GIS-Based Multi-Criteria Assessment

Seasonal snow is a critical water resource in Northern Kazakhstan, where spring snowmelt dominates surface runoff and agricultural water supply. However, traditional rainwater harvesting frameworks often neglect snow water equivalent (SWE), limiting their applicability in cold, snow-dominated steppe environments. This study develops an integrated remote sensing and GIS-based approach to identify potential sites for spring runoff harvesting. Using Sentinel-2 imagery, snow cover fraction (SCF) was derived and combined with a digital elevation model (DEM) to estimate snow depth through a quadratic regression model, validated against in situ data from 23 meteorological stations. Snow water equivalent was then calculated by incorporating field-measured snow density. Alongside SWE, six additional parameters—slope, drainage density, land use/land cover (LULC), and soil texture (sand, silt, clay)—were integrated within an Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) multi-criteria decision analysis. Results show that SWE, drainage density, and LULC collectively contributed 75% of the weight in site suitability, underscoring their dominant role in snowmelt-driven hydrology. The final suitability map indicates that 28.03% of the region falls into the “Very High” class, concentrated in central and northwestern districts. Developing just 30% of these potential zones could yield approximately 4.2 × 108 m3 of usable meltwater, supporting up to 105,000 ha under full irrigation or 280,000 ha under deficit irrigation. The study demonstrates that integrating high-resolution SWE with MCDA provides a scalable framework for enhancing agricultural resilience, mitigating floods, and strengthening water security in cold, semi-arid landscapes.