Learning across formal, nonformal, and informal settings: associations with self-regulated learning in Indonesian higher education

This study examines how university students’ learning experiences across formal, nonformal, and informal settings relate to their self-regulated learning (SRL), and how students describe developing learning autonomy within an SRL-based course. A cross-sectional mixed-methods design was used in a semester-long course at an Indonesian university (N = 102), combining two Likert scales with qualitative data. Multiple regression showed informal and nonformal learning predicted SRL as strongly as formal coursework (R2 = .643; β = .38, .38, .32), challenging classroom-centred assumptions about where regulatory capacity is built. Thematic analysis of interviews, observations, reflections, and questionnaires showed students building this capacity through self-initiated planning, environment-shaping, and reflection, linked to growing readiness for self-directed learning (SDL). Findings describe associations, not change over time.